Religions of the World -9-ISLAM-632 AD

ISLAM-632 AD

History of Islam

The history of Islam centers around one person, Muhammad (also spelled Muhammad or Mohammed). He was born about 570 A.D. and was raised by his extended family after the death of his parents. As he grew, he became dissatisfied with polytheism and came to believe in one God, Allah. He began to have religious visions about age 40. During these visions, Muhammad would receive “messages” or “revelations” from Allah. He would memorize them and teach them to his followers. These visions are now recorded in the Qur’an (or Koran). Muhammad continued to receive these visions and messages until his death in 632 A.D.

The Expansion of Islam

Muhammad’s new faith was not widely accepted in his hometown of Mecca. Therefore, he and his followers moved to Medina which means “City of the Prophet”. This movement is known as the Hijirat or “the flight”. It marks the turning point in Islam and serves as the beginning date on Islamic calendars.

At first, Muhammad was sympathetic to both Christians and Jews, but after their rejection of his teachings, he turned from Jerusalem as the centre of worship for Islam to Mecca. He realized he must return to Mecca, and he did, conquering the city. Islam quickly spread throughout the area.

When Muhammad died, he left no document appointing a successor. Some people thought that one of the original converts who had taught with Muhammad, some wanted a member of a powerful political family in the area, and others felt that “Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad had been divinely designated as successor. An early believer, Abu Bakr was appointed, but died within two years.

Eventually, a power struggle developed as different groups of Muslims believed their method of establishing a successor were the best. The largest argument was over whether the successor should be elected or chosen through heredity. This controversy produced the main body of Islam known as the Sunnis (followers of the prophet’s way) and other numerous sects including the Shi’a and the Sufis. The Sunnis are the majority in Islam today.

The Shi’a are the group of Muslims who believe that the successorship should remain within Muhammad’s family, and that leaders are spiritually chosen, not politically chosen. They carry with them the pain of Muhammad’s son-in-law, “Ali, who was murdered by Mu’awiya in order to obtain power. Today, the Shi’a dominate Iran.

The Sufis are a group who believes that orthodox Islam is too mechanical and impersonal. This group of Islamic mystics seek for direct personal experience of the Divine.

Nationalism in the Arab world since the rise of Israel as a political power has kept Islam strong. It is a rapidly spreading religion because of its cultural and political appeal and its universal message of peace, temperance and the brotherhood of man.

Basic Beliefs of Islam

The teachings of Islam are comprised of both faith and duty (din). One branch of Muslim learning, “Tawhid”, defines all that a man should believe, while the other branch, “Shari’a,” prescribes everything that he should do. There is no priesthood and no sacraments. Except among the Sufis, Muslims receive instruction only from those who consider themselves adequately learned in theology or law.

The basis for Islamic doctrine is found in the Qur’an (Koran). It is the scripture of Islam, written by Muhammad and his disciples as dictated by the Angel Gabriel. It along is infallible and without error. The Qur’an comprises 114 surahs, or chapters, arranged from longest to the shortest. For Muslims, the Qur’an is the world of God, and the carrier of the revelation of Muhammad, the last and most perfect of God’s messengers to mankind.

In addition to the Qur’an, other documents are also referred to by followers of Islam. A number of additional sayings of Muhammad were compiled in the Hadith (“tradition”). The Torat (of Moses), Suhaf (books of the prophets), Zabur (psalms of David), and the Injil (gospel of Jesus) are also studied and considered to be revelations, although they are believed to have been corrupted through time.

Five Articles of Faith

The five articles of faith are the main doctrines of Islam. All Muslims are expected to believe the following:

1. Allah. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam believes there is one true Allah (The Arabic translation of the word God). Allah alone is the creator of all the universe.

2. Angels. Angels exist and interact with human lives. They are comprised of light, and each have different purposes or messages to bring to earth. Each man or woman has two angels who record his actions; one records good deeds, the other bad deeds.

3. Scripture. There are four inspired books, the Torah of Moses, the Psalms (Zabin) of David, the Gospel of Jesus Christ (Injil) and the Qur’an. All but the Qur’an have been corrupted by Jews and Christians.

4. Prophets. God has spoken through numerous prophets throughout time. The six greatest are: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Muhammad is the last and greatest of Allah’s messengers.

5. Last Days. On the last day there will be a time of resurrection and judgment. Those who follow Allah and Muhammad will go to Islamic heaven, or Paradise. Those who do not will go to hell.

The Five Pillars of Faith

The five pillars of faith are observances in Islam which are duties each Muslim must perform.

1. Creed (Kalima)- One must state, “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah.” Publicly to become a Muslim.

2. Prayer (Salat)- Prayer must be done five times a day (upon rising, at noon, in mid-afternoon, after sunset, and before going to sleep) towards the direction of Mecca. The call to prayer is sounded by the Muezzin (Muslim crier) from a tower (minaret) within the mosque.

3. Almsgiving (Zakat)- Muslims are legally required to give one-fortieth of their income to the needy. Since those whom aims are given are helping the giver achieve salvation, there is no sense of shame in receiving charity.

4. Fasting (Ramadan)- During the holy month of Ramadan, faithful Muslims fast from sunup to sundown each day. This develops self-control, devotion to God, and identity with the needy.

5. Pilgrimage (Hajj)- Each Muslim is expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they have the means to do it and are physically capable of the trip. It is an essential part of gaining salvation, so the old or infirm may send someone in their place. It involves a set of rituals and ceremonies.

Religions of the World-8-Buddhism

History of Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion which is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the son of a wealthy landowner born in northern India around 560 B.C. In order to achieve spiritual peace, Gautama renounced his worldly advantages and became known as Buddha, or “the enlightened one”. He preached his religious views his entire life throughout South Africa.

Buddhism became a strong force in India before Buddha’s death. The diffusion of Buddhism, however, was limited until the Indian emperor Asoka became a convert and supported missionary activities. Soon, Buddhism became established in China, Japan, Korea, and Southeast Asia, where it is most practiced today. Hinduism is not the predominant Indian religion.

The Four Noble Truths

The First Noble Truth is the existence of suffering. Birth is painful and death is painful; disease and old age are painful. Not having what we desire is painful and having what we do not desire is also painful.

The Second Noble Truth is the cause of suffering. It is the craving desire for the pleasures of the senses, which seeks satisfaction now here, now there; the craving for happiness and prosperity in this life and in future lives.

The Third Noble Truth is the ending of suffering. To be free of suffering one must give up, get rid of, extinguish this very craving, so that no passion and no desire remain.

The Fourth Noble Truth leads to the ending of all pain by way of the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path

The first step on the path is Right Views: You must accept the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold path.

The Second is Right Resolve: You must renounce the pleasures of the senses: You must harbor no ill will toward anyone and harm no living creature.

The third is Right Speech: Do not lie; do not slander or abuse anyone. Do not indulge in idle talk.

The fourth is Right Behaviour: Do not destroy any living creature; take only what is given to you; do not commit any unlawful sexual act.

The fifth is Right Occupation: You must earn your livelihood in a way that will harm no one.

The sixth is Right Effort: You must resolve and strive heroically to prevent any evil qualities from arising in you and to abandon any evil qualities that you may possess.

The seventh is Right Contemplation: Be observant, strenuous, alert, contemplative, and free of desire and of sorrow.

The eighth is Right Meditation: When you have abandoned all sensuous pleasures, all evil qualities, both joy and sorrow, you must then enter the four degrees of meditation, which are produced by concentration.

Buddhist Precepts

There are five precepts taught by Buddhism that all Buddhists should follow:

1. Kill no living thing.

2. Do not steal.

3. Do not commit adultery.

4. Tell no lies.

5. Do not drink intoxicants or take drugs.

Other precepts apply only to monks and nuns:

1. Eat moderately and only at the appointed time.

2. Avoid that which excites the senses.

3. Do not wear adornments.

4. Do not sleep in luxurious beds.

5. Accept no silver or gold.

Shiva Linga - A few Facts

The devotees of the Lord Shiva Linga are known as the Saivaitees. The Shiva Linga is considered as the holy symbol of Lord Shiva and is held with utmost respect. ‘Lingum’ in Sanskrit represents, ‘symbol’. Thus Shiva Lingum represents symbol of Lord Shiva and is considered most sacred by Shaivaitees. Siva Linga has been worshipped in Hinduism since ages. Shiva Mahapurana eulogises the worship of . This is because the form makes worship simple while maintaining the truth that God does not have any definite form.

Structure of Shiva Linga
Shiva Linga comes in any different forms but generally it is rounded, elliptical, an-iconic image which is usually set on a circular base or 'Peetham' which represents the Parashakti, the manifesting power of God as different from Aparashakti which is only a witness. A detail description of the both shaktis are found in the Bhagabhad Gita.

Shiva Lingas can be made of metal, precious gems, crystal, wood, earth or even ice. However, they are usually made of stone. 'Swayambhu', means manifested by itself is considered very sacred and are few in numbers. Shiva Linga may be made of 12 different materials such as duba grass, rudraksha, sandal wood, rice or cooked rice, clay, cow dung, ashes, flower, butter, molasses or sand .

Various Interpretation of Shiva Linga
Shiva Linga has been interpreted in many ways. But no matter however it sis interpreted is considered very sacred and worshipped with all sincereity. Let us discuss a few of the popular theories and interpretations related to Shiva Linga and its origin:

Shiva Linga as the Phallus
Here the Siva Linga represents the reproductive system or process. The other meaning of the Sanskrit word ‘Linga’ is the phallus (the male reproductive organ) and it is further accepted that the circula base where the Lingam is set is regarded as the Yoni which mean vagina or the female reproductive organ. Thus this represents the copulation where the dripping of water from top from a Kalas is considered as intercourse.The Shiva Linga can be dated back to the early Indus Valley civilization where all these represented the point of energy, creation and enlightenment.

Shiva Linga in Puranas
Puranas are the scriptures primarily menat for the less knowledgeable rural folks in a poetic form with stories and descriptions of the mythology in a beautiful context. Thus we find references of Shiva Linga in the Shiva Purana, the Linga Purana, the Skanda Purana, the Vamana Purana and the Matsya Purana. where the lingam is said to be linked to the egos of Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma.

Shiva Linga and the Tantra
The Tantra describes Shiva Linga as a symbol of Shiva's phallus in spiritual form which the soul-seed within which lies the essence of the entire cosmos. The lingam arises out of the base (Yoni) which represents Parvati.

Shiva Linga as an Abstract Symbol of God
Interpretation of the Shiva Linga has also been extended to the abstract symbol of the God. Many instances of Shiva Linga can also be found where they have been made out of sand alone. It is also seen that during a penance, Arjun, the great warrior of Mahabharat has worshipped the Lord Shiva by creating a Shiva Linga made out of clay. Lord Shiva was very much pleased and had bestowed with many weapons along with the most powerful Pashupat Astra.

The God does not have a particular form and can assess any form according to the wish of a devotee. This is also emphasised in the Bhagavat Gita. Thus creating a form of Shiva Linga can also be attributed to this philosophy among many others.

The Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra

THE 'MANTRAS' ARE CONSIDERED AS MEANS TO ACHIEVE A PARTICULAR OBJECTIVE. THEY ARE MENTIONED IN DIFFERENT 'VEDAS' AND CAN ONLY BE PRACTICED WHEN GIVEN BY A "TRUE GURU" OR MASTER.

The methods and time of the chanting is as important as the 'Mantra' itself. Chanting rightly after getting it from a True Master, opens up avenues for true expansion of mind and its mysteries. This 'mantra' is considerd to be one of the most powerful 'mantras' of the Lord.

Let us explore the The Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra.

The Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra
The following Maha Mrityunjay Mantra has been taken from the Sukla Yajurveda Samhita III. 60. The Mantra is addressed to Lord Shiva and is a centuries old technique of connecting one to pure consciousness and bliss.

Om Tryamlakam Yajamahe
Sugandhim Pusti - vardhanam |
Urva - rukamiva Bandhanan
Mrtyor - muksheeya Ma - amritat ||

Meaning:
Om. We worship The Three-Eyed Lord Shiva who is fragrant and who increasingly nourishes the devotees. Worshipping him may we be liberated from death for the sake of immortality just as the ripe watermelon separates itself from the binding stalk.

Explanation:
The mantra is a prayer to Lord Shiva who is addressed as Sankara and Trayambaka. Sankara is sana (blessings) and Kara (the Giver). Trayambaka is the three eyed one (where the third eye signifies the giver of knowledge, which destroys ignorance and releases us from the cycle of death and rebirth).

Best Time to Chant
Chanting the Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra with sincerity, faith and devotion in Bramha Muhurata is very beneficial. But one can also do Maha Mrityunjaya japa anytime in a pure environment with great benefit and discover the happiness that's already within.

Religions of the World - 7 -SHINTO-500 + BC

Brief History of Shinto:

Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion. Starting about 500 BCE (or earlier) it was originally "an amorphous mix of nature worship, fertility cults, divination techniques, hero worship, and shamanism." ₄ Its name was derived from the Chinese words "shin tao" ("The Way of the Gods") in the 8th Century CE. At that time:

	The Yamato dynasty consolidated its rule over most of Japan.
	Divine origins were ascribed to the imperial family.
	Shinto established itself as an official religion of Japan, along with Buddhism.

The complete separation of Japanese religion from politics did not occur until just after World War II. The Emperor was forced by the American army to renounce his divinity at that time.

Unlike most other religions, Shinto has no real founder, no written scriptures, no body of religious law, and only a very loosely-organized priesthood.

Shinto beliefs:

	Shinto creation stories tell of the history and lives of the "Kami" (deities). Among them was a divine couple, Izanagi-no-mikoto and Izanami-no-mikoto, who gave birth to the Japanese islands. Their children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. Amaterasu Omikami (Sun Goddess) was one of their daughters. She is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. Her shrine is at Ise. Her descendants unified the country. Her brother, Susano came down from heaven and roamed throughout the earth. He is famous for killing a great evil serpent.
	The Kami are the Shinto deities. The word "Kami" is generally translated "god" or "gods." However, the Kami bear little resemblance to the gods of monotheistic religions. There are no concepts which compare to the Christian beliefs in the wrath of God, his omnipotence and omni-presence, or the separation of God from humanity due to sin. There are numerous other deities who are conceptualized in many forms: Those related to natural objects and creatures, from "food to rivers to rocks." 2 Guardian Kami of particular areas and clans Exceptional people, including all but the last of the emperors. Abstract creative forces They are seen as generally benign; they sustain and protect the people. 9
	About 84% of the population of Japan follow two religions: both Shinto and Buddhism. As in much of Asia, Christianity is very much a minority religion. 12 Fewer than 1% of Japanese adults are Christians. Buddhism first arrived in Japan from Korea and China during the 6th through 8th centuries CE. The two religions share a basic optimism about human nature, and for the world. Within Shinto, the Buddha was viewed as another "Kami". Meanwhile, Buddhism in Japan regarded the Kami as being manifestations of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Most weddings are performed by Shinto priests; funerals are performed by Buddhist priests.
	Shinto does not have as fully developed a theology as do most other religions. It does not have its own moral code. Shintoists generally follow the code of Confucianism.
	Their religious texts discuss the "High Plain of Heaven" and the "Dark Land" which is an unclean land of the dead, but give few details of the afterlife.
	Ancestors are deeply revered and worshipped.
	All of humanity is regarded as "Kami's child." Thus all human life and human nature is sacred.
	Believers revere "musuhi", the Kamis' creative and harmonizing powers. They aspire to have "makoto", sincerity or true heart. This is regarded as the way or will of Kami.
	Morality is based upon that which is of benefit to the group. "Shinto emphasizes right practice, sensibility, and attitude." 2
	There are "Four Affirmations"in Shinto: Tradition and the family: The family is seen as the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved. Their main celebrations relate to birth and marriage. Love of nature: Nature is sacred; to be in contact with nature is to be close to the Gods. Natural objects are worshipped as sacred spirits. Physical cleanliness: Followers of Shinto take baths, wash their hands, and rinse out their mouth often. "Matsuri": The worship and honor given to the Kami and ancestral spirits.
	The desire for peace, which was suppressed during World War II, has been restored.

Shinto practices:

	Shinto recognizes many sacred places: mountains, springs, etc.
	Each shrine is dedicated to a specific Kami who has a divine personality and responds to sincere prayers of the faithful. When entering a shrine, one passes through a Tori a special gateway for the Gods. It marks the demarcation between the finite world and the infinite world of the Gods.
	In the past, believers practiced "misogi,", the washing of their bodies in a river near the shrine. In recent years they only wash their hands and wash out their mouths in a wash basin provided within the shrine grounds.
	Believers respect animals as messengers of the Gods. A pair of statues of "Koma-inu" (guard dogs) face each other within the temple grounds.
	Shrine ceremonies, which include cleansing, offerings, prayers, and dances are directed to the Kami.
	Kagura are ritual dances accompanied by ancient musical instruments. The dances are performed by skilled and trained dancers. They consist of young virgin girls, a group of men, or a single man.
	Mamori are charms worn as an aid in healing and protection. They come in many different forms for various purposes.
	An altar, the "Kami-dana" (Shelf of Gods), is given a central place in many homes.
	Seasonal celebrations are held at spring planting, fall harvest, and special anniversaries of the history of a shrine or of a local patron spirit. A secular, country-wide National Founding Day is held on FEB-11 to commemorate the founding of Japan; this is the traditional date on which the first (mythical) emperor Jinmu ascended the throne in 660 BCE. Some shrines are believed to hold festivities on that day. Other festivals include: JAN 1-3 Shogatsu (New Year); MAR-3 Hinamatsuri (Girls' festival); MAY-5 Tango no Sekku (Boys' festival); JUL-7 Hoshi Matsuri (Star festival).
	Followers are expected to visit Shinto shrines at the times of various life passages. For example, the Shichigosan Matsuri involves a blessing by the shrine Priest of girls aged three and seven and boys aged five. It is held on NOV-15.
	Many followers are involved in the "offer a meal movement," in which each individual bypasses a breakfast (or another meal) once per month and donates the money saved to their religious organization for international relief and similar activity.
	Origami ("Paper of the spirits"): This is a Japanese folk art in which paper is folded into beautiful shapes. They are often seen around Shinto shrines. Out of respect for the tree spirit that gave its life to make the paper, origami paper is never cut.

Forms of Shinto:

Shinto exists in four main forms or traditions:

	Koshitsu Shinto (The Shinto of the Imperial House): This involves rituals performed by the emperor, who the Japanese Constitution defines to be the "symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." The most important ritual is Niinamesai, which makes an offering to the deities of the first fruits of each year's grain harvest. Male and female clergy (Shoten and Nai-Shoten) assist the emperor in the performance of these rites.
	Jinja (Shrine) Shinto: This is the largest Shinto group. It was the original form of the religion; its roots date back into pre-history. Until the end of World War II, it was closely aligned with State Shinto. The Emperor of Japan was worshipped as a living God. Almost all shrines in Japan are members of Jinja Honcho, the Association of Shinto Shrines. It currently includes about 80,000 shrines as members. The association urges followers of Shinto "To be grateful for the blessings of Kami and the benefits of the ancestors, and to be diligent in the observance of the Shinto rites, applying oneself to them with sincerity. brightness, and purity of heart." "To be helpful to others and in the world at large through deeds of service without thought of rewards, and to seek the advancement of the world as one whose life mediates the will of Kami." "To bind oneself with others in harmonious acknowledgment of the will of the emperor, praying that the country may flourish and that other peoples too may live in peace and prosperity." 5
	Kyoha (Sectarian) Shinto (aka Shuha Shinto): This consists of 13 sects which were founded by individuals since the start of the 19th century. Each sect has its own beliefs and doctrines. Most emphasize worship of their own central deity; some follow a near-monotheistic religion.
	Minzoku (Folk) Shinto This is not a separate Shinto group; it has no formal central organization or creed. It is seen in local rural practices and rituals, e.g. small images by the side of the road, agriculture rituals practiced by individual families, etc. A rural community will often select a layman annually, who will be responsible for worshiping the local deity.

These four forms are closely linked. Shinto is a tolerant religion which accepts the validity of other religions. It is common for a believer to pay respects to other religions, their practices and objects of worship.

Shinto texts:

Many texts are valued in the Shinto religion. Most date from the 8th century CE:

	The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters)
	The Rokkokushi (Six National Histories)
	The Shoku Nihongi and its Nihon Shoki (Continuing Chronicles of Japan)
	The Jinno Shotoki (a study of Shinto and Japanese politics and history) written in the 14th century

Thus, Shinto is an ancient Japanese religion, closely tied to nature, which recognizes the existence of various “Kami”, nature deities. The first two deities, Izanagi and Izanami, gave birth to the Japanese islands and their children became the deities of the various Japanese clans. One of the their daughters, Amaterasu (Sun Goddess), is the ancestress of the Imperial Family and is regarded as the chief deity. All the Kami are benign and serve only to sustain and protect. There are “ Four Affirmations” in Shinto:

1. Tradition and family: the family is the main mechanism by which traditions are preserved.

2. Love of nature: nature is sacred and natural objects are to be worshipped as sacred spirits.

3. Physical cleanliness: they must take baths, wash their hands, and rinse their mouth often.

4. “Matsuri”: festival which honours the spirits.

Religions of the World-6-TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM:

Taoism, was founded in the 604 BC in China by Lao-Tze, which means "old philosopher" or "old boy", but his real name was Li-Uhr.
It is actually practiced in China by most of the 2 billion Chinese, in syncretism with Confucianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam... and even by those who call themselves Communists...

Lao-Tze was the teacher of Confucius... and both Taoism and Confucianism complement each other: Lao-Tze is the "mystic" who spoke chiefly of the unseen and intangible; Confucius is the "great realistic" and moral philosopher who preferred not speaking of things unseen, rather he set a system of "moral axioms" rather than "religious dogmas".

"Two" different religious ways:

For Confucius "human conduct" must be righteous, and the man's relation with God and the universe would take care of itself... for Lao-Tze, man must establish himself in harmony with the universal principle, with Tao, through his own Tao, and good human conduct will follow...
- Which way will be better to become a good person?... to try to be good, or to try to unite with God?...

For Christianity the way is to live in Christ and Christ in you... because all persons are essentially "selfish", we love ourselves, which is the opposite of the real "love"; but if Jesus is in you, then you are going to feed the hungry, help the sick or the one in need... but it is "not you", it is Christ "who lives in you" (Gal.2:20)... however, when Christ is in you, you do not become a "robot", you are still the only one responsible for yours actions, and you have to strive to be pure and good, living every minute of your life with faith in Jesus, who lives in you, without fear to nobody and to nothing... the greatest sin of a Christian is to do something without faith in Christ, trusting in himself or in money or in human power instead of trusting in Jesus Christ (Rom.14:23).

1- The Creator.
2- The Helper.
3- Lao-Tze as god, after death...

Religions of the World-5-Confucianism - 500 BC

History:

K'ung Fu Tzu (commonly pronounced Confucius in English) was born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (modern day Shantung Province). He lived during the Chou dynasty, an era known for its moral laxity. Later in life, he wandered through many states of China, giving advice to their rulers. He accumulated a small band of students during this time. The last years of his life were spent back in Lu, where he devoted himself to teaching.

His writings deal primarily with individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers.

In China, and some other areas in Asia, the social ethics and moral teachings of Confucius are blended with the Taoist communion with nature and Buddhist concepts of the afterlife, to form a set of complementary, peacefully co-existent and ecumenical religions.

There are approximately 6 million Confucians in the world. About 26,000 live in North America; almost all of the remainder are found throughout China and the rest of Asia.

Beliefs:

Confucian ethical teachings include the following values:

	Li: includes ritual, propriety, etiquette, etc.
	Hsiao: love within the family: love of parents for their children and of children for their parents
	Yi: righteousness
	Xin: honesty and trustworthiness
	Jen: benevolence, humaneness towards others; the highest Confucian virtue
	Chung: loyalty to the state, etc.

Practices:

Confucianism does not contain all of the elements of some other religions, like Christianity and Islam. It is primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times during one's lifetime have been added.

Since the time of the Han dynasty (206 CE) four life passages have been recognized and regulated by Confucian tradition:

	birth: The T'ai-shen (spirit of the fetus) protects the expectant woman and deals harshly with anyone who harasses the mother to be. A special procedure is followed when the placenta is disposed of. The mother is given a special diet and is allowed rest for a month after delivery. The mother's family of origin supplies all the items required by the baby on the first, fourth and twelfth monthly anniversary of the birth.
	reaching maturity: This life passage is no longer being celebrated, except in traditional families. It takes the form of a group meal in which the young adult is served chicken.
	marriage: This is performed in six stages: Proposal: the couple exchange the eight characters: the year, month, day and hour of each of their births. If any unpropitious event occurs within the bride-to-be's family during the next three days, then the woman is believed to have rejected the proposal. Engagement: after the wedding day is chosen, the bride announces the wedding with invitations and a gift of cookies made in the shape of the moon. Dowry: This is carried to the groom's home in a solemn procession. The bride-price is then sent to the bride by the groom's parents. Gifts by the groom to the bride, equal in value to the dowry, are sent to her. Procession: The groom visits the bride's home and brings her back to his place, with much fanfare. Marriage and Reception: The couple recite their vows, toast each other with wine, and then take center stage at a banquet. Morning after: The bride serves breakfast to the groom's parents, who then reciprocate.
	death: At death, the relatives cry out aloud to inform the neighbors. The family starts mourning and puts on clothes made of a coarse material. The corpse is washed and placed in a coffin. Mourners bring incense and money to offset the cost of the funeral. Food and significant objects of the deceased are placed into the coffin. A Buddhist or Taoist priest (or even a Christian minister) performs the burial ritual. Friends and family follow the coffin to the cemetery, along with a willow branch which symbolizes the soul of the person who has died. The latter is carried back to the family altar where it is used to "install" the spirit of the deceased. Liturgies are performed on the 7th, 9th, 49th day after the burial and on the first and third anniversaries of the death.